Canada Goose – Complete Waterfowl Ballistic Data
The Canada goose (Branta canadensis) is one of the largest and most resilient waterfowl species commonly hunted in North America.
This page provides a species-specific ballistic analysis based on pellet penetration, pattern density, and lethality probability, using the same scientific framework applied throughout the Waterfowl Ballistics database.
All conclusions are derived from exterior ballistic modelling and anatomical constraints, with the objective of defining maximum ethical shooting distances, not theoretical limits.
Premium data access
The complete ballistic tables presented on this page are available to Premium members.
They provide full pellet-by-pellet data supporting the conclusions discussed below.
👉 Access the full ballistic tables by becoming a Premium member
Important note on interpretation
These tables combine pellet penetration and pattern density to define species-specific ethical range limits.
Readers unfamiliar with the methodology should review how penetration, hit probability, and limiting factors are defined.
Species Overview
The Canada goose is widely distributed across North America and is encountered in a broad range of hunting scenarios, from over-decoy shooting to long crossing shots.
Adult birds commonly harvested in the United States weigh approximately 9.3 lbs, presenting a large frontal target surface and significantly thicker muscle and bone structures than ducks.
Compared to mallards, the Canada goose exhibits:
- increased body mass,
- denser plumage,
- thicker pectoral muscles,
- and more robust skeletal structures.
These factors result in higher penetration requirements and a greater dependence on sufficient pellet density to achieve reliable lethality.
Anatomy and Lethal Zones
Effective lethal zones on a Canada goose include:
- head and cervical spine,
- neck,
- heart–lung complex,
- shoulder girdle and wing bones,
- spinal column.
Due to the bird’s size and muscular build, impacts outside these zones are far more likely to result in crippling or delayed lethality than on smaller waterfowl species.
As a result, both adequate penetration and multiple vital hits are critical for ethical harvesting.
Target Surface and Penetration Requirements
The effective frontal target surface of a Canada goose is approximately 95 in².
Based on anatomical depth, muscle thickness, and tissue resistance, the minimum penetration required to reliably reach vital organs is approximately 2.25 inches.
Ballistic modelling further indicates that an average of 8 pellet impacts within the vital zone are required to achieve a lethality probability approaching 95%, assuming adequate penetration is met.
These requirements are substantially higher than those observed for ducks, and directly influence pellet size selection, material choice, and maximum ethical shooting distance.
Shot Materials Considered
This analysis considers the following non-toxic shot materials:
- Steel (density 7.8 g/cm³)
- Bismuth (density ≈ 9.5 g/cm³)
- HEVI-Shot tungsten alloy (density ≈ 12 g/cm³)
- Tungsten Super Shot – TSS 18 (density 18 g/cm³)
Each material presents different penetration and pellet-count characteristics at distance.
Premium Ballistic Tables
Premium access unlocks complete ballistic tables for each load and pellet size.
Steel Shot
Steel shot remains the most commonly used non-toxic material for Canada goose hunting in North America.
However, due to the goose’s larger body mass, thicker muscle structure, and higher penetration requirements, steel loads that perform adequately on ducks may become marginal or unethical on geese.
This section applies the same ballistic and ethical criteria used throughout the database to evaluate realistic steel performance on Canada geese.
12 ga 2¾” – 1 oz – 1450 fps
| Pellet | Max yd | Penetration | Hits / bird | Limiting |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| BB | 44.8 | 2.4 | 8.11 | impacts |
| B | 42.7 | 2.25 | 10.31 | penetration |
| #1 | 28.4 | 2.26 | 14.97 | penetration |
Full pellet-by-pellet ballistic tables are available to Premium members
Conclusion – 12 ga 2¾” – 1 oz – 1450 fps
At standard velocity and limited payload, steel shot performance on Canada geese is severely constrained.
Even with very large pellet sizes, ethical range remains modest and is governed by a narrow balance between penetration and hit probability.
BB shot provides the longest usable range (≈45 yards), maintaining adequate penetration while remaining pattern-density limited at distance.
Larger pellets do not compensate for the reduced pellet count inherent to a 1 oz load.
B and #1 fail to sustain the minimum penetration threshold beyond short distances, as residual velocity drops rapidly and hit probability declines.
Overall, this load confirms that 12ga 2¾” standard steel is a marginal solution for Canada geese, requiring disciplined range control and precise shot placement, with BB representing the only viable compromise under ethical constraints.
12 ga 2¾” – 1-1/16 oz – 1550 fps
Full pellet-by-pellet ballistic tables are available to Premium members
Conclusion – 12 ga 2¾” – 1-1/16 oz – 1550 fps
Compared to the standard-velocity 12ga 2¾” steel load, the high-velocity configuration produces a modest but measurable extension of ethical performance on Canada geese.
With this load, BB reaches approximately 47 yards, remaining primarily pattern-density limited, while B achieves similar distance but becomes penetration-limited, highlighting the narrow margin between pellet mass and required penetration on large-bodied geese.
Despite increased impact velocity, pellet sizes #1 and #2 remain clearly penetration-limited, failing to meet the minimum penetration threshold beyond short distances.
Higher speed does not compensate for insufficient pellet mass when deep tissue penetration is required.
Overall, high velocity improves consistency and penetration margin for large pellets, but does not significantly alter the ethical envelope.
Maximum ethical range remains constrained to the mid-to-high 40-yard range, confirming that for Canada geese, pellet size and pellet mass remain more critical than velocity alone.
12 ga 3″ – 1¼ oz @ 1450 fps
Full pellet-by-pellet ballistic tables are available to Premium members
Conclusion – 12 ga 3″ – 1¼ oz @ 1450 fps
Increasing payload to a 3″ steel load improves pellet count and pattern margin, but Canada goose performance remains primarily penetration-limited across all large pellet sizes.
In this configuration, BB provides the longest ethical distance (≈ 51 yards) while still meeting minimum penetration requirements, making it the most viable option within the constraints of steel.
However, the limiting factor shifts firmly toward penetration, confirming that the goose’s anatomy demands substantial pellet mass even at moderate range.
Pellet sizes B and #1, despite higher hit counts, remain penetration-limited at shorter distances, as their reduced pellet mass fails to sustain the required penetration threshold as range increases.
Overall, the 3″ payload offers a small but meaningful gain in ethical distance compared to 2¾” steel, yet the data reinforce a clear conclusion: on Canada geese, steel effectiveness is governed far more by penetration constraints than by pattern density, and ethical range remains relatively tight even with increased payload.
12 ga 3½” – 1⅜ oz @ 1550 fps
Full pellet-by-pellet ballistic tables are available to Premium members
Conclusion – 12 ga 3½” – 1⅜ oz @ 1550 fps
The 3½” high-velocity steel load delivers the maximum performance envelope achievable with steel on Canada geese, yet the data clearly show that gains remain incremental rather than transformative.
With this configuration, BB reaches approximately 55 yards, remaining pattern-density limited, while simultaneously operating very close to the minimum penetration threshold. This confirms BB as the upper practical steel pellet size for large-bodied geese.
Pellet sizes B, #1, and #2 all remain penetration-limited, despite increased velocity and payload. Additional pellet count improves hit probability, but does not compensate for insufficient pellet mass to reliably reach vital organs at distance.
Overall, even at maximum steel payload and velocity, ethical range on Canada geese stabilizes in the mid-50-yard range. The data reinforce a key conclusion: for large geese, steel is fundamentally penetration-limited, and increases in shell length and velocity yield diminishing returns once BB performance is reached.
12 ga 3½” – 1½ oz @ 1500 fps
Full pellet-by-pellet ballistic tables are available to Premium members
Conclusion – 12 ga 3½” – 1½ oz @ 1500 fps
Increasing payload to 1½ oz marginally improves pellet count, but does not materially extend ethical range on Canada geese.
With this load, BB reaches approximately 56 yards, becoming penetration-limited, which marks the absolute upper boundary of steel performance on this species.
Pellet sizes B and #1, despite very high hit counts, remain clearly penetration-limited, failing to meet the minimum penetration requirement beyond substantially shorter distances.
The additional pellets primarily increase redundancy, not lethality at range.
Compared to the faster 3½” 1550 fps load, this heavier configuration offers no meaningful ballistic advantage. Ethical performance converges toward the same limit, confirming that once BB reaches its penetration ceiling, additional payload cannot overcome the intrinsic density limitation of steel.
Steel Load Comparison — Key takeaway
Ballistic modelling shows that steel shot performance on Canada geese is primarily penetration-limited, regardless of shell length or velocity. Across all 12-gauge configurations analyzed, ethical range quickly converges toward a narrow ceiling defined by pellet mass, not pellet count or speed.
BB steel consistently represents the upper practical limit, with maximum ethical distances stabilizing in the mid-50-yard range under ideal conditions. Increasing payload or velocity mainly improves consistency rather than range, confirming that on large-bodied geese, meaningful performance gains require higher-density materials, not heavier or faster steel loads.
Bismuth Load
Bismuth Shot Overview
Compared to steel, bismuth shot offers a significant increase in pellet density, resulting in improved penetration at distance. This allows the use of smaller pellet sizes while maintaining the minimum penetration required for ethical lethality on large-bodied geese.
The following analysis applies the same ballistic and ethical criteria used for steel, in order to determine whether increased density translates into a meaningful extension of ethical range, or primarily provides greater margin and consistency within existing limits.
Bismuth 12 ga 2¾” – 1⅛ oz 1350 fps
Full pellet-by-pellet ballistic tables are available to Premium members
Conclusion – 12 ga 2¾” (1⅛ oz @ 1350 fps)
Compared to steel, bismuth delivers a clear penetration advantage, allowing medium pellet sizes to remain effective at distances where steel becomes penetration-limited.
In this configuration, #1 bismuth provides the longest ethical range (≈ 48 yards), remaining pattern-density limited rather than penetration-limited.
Pellet sizes BB and B reach shorter distances due to lower pellet counts, while smaller pellets (#2 and #3) become penetration-limited despite excellent hit density.
Overall, bismuth in a standard 2¾” load significantly widens the ethical envelope on Canada geese, not by extending extreme range, but by providing greater margin and flexibility compared to steel at equivalent distances.
Bismuth 12 ga 2¾” – 1¼ oz @ 1300 fps
Full pellet-by-pellet ballistic tables are available to Premium members
Conclusion – 12 ga 2¾” (1¼ oz @ 1300 fps)
Increasing payload from 1⅛ oz to 1¼ oz improves pattern density, but does not materially change the penetration hierarchy.
#1 bismuth remains the optimal pellet size, extending ethical range slightly to approximately 51 yards, while still being pattern-density limited rather than penetration-limited.
Larger pellets (BB and B) remain constrained by hit probability, whereas smaller pellets (#2 and #3) continue to fall short of the minimum penetration requirement at extended distances.
Overall, the heavier 2¾” bismuth load provides a modest gain in margin, confirming that bismuth’s primary advantage over steel lies in usable flexibility, not in a dramatic extension of maximum range.
Steel vs Bismuth — 12 ga 2¾” Comparison — Key takeaway
Ballistic modelling shows that bismuth provides a clear penetration advantage over steel, allowing medium pellet sizes to remain effective at distances where steel becomes penetration-limited. In standard 12ga 2¾” loads, #1 bismuth consistently emerges as the optimal pellet size, maintaining ethical lethality to approximately 50 yards while remaining pattern-density limited.
Beyond pure ballistics, bismuth offers practical advantages: reduced recoil compared to heavy steel magnums and greater choke versatility, including safe use in tighter or older chokes. As a result, bismuth delivers increased consistency, comfort, and margin for error, making it a more forgiving and adaptable option for Canada goose hunting without fundamentally altering ethical range limits.
HEVI-Shot
HEVI-Shot Overview
HEVI-Shot occupies an intermediate position between bismuth and tungsten super shot. With a density around 12 g/cm³, it offers significantly improved penetration compared to steel and bismuth, while remaining more affordable than high-density TSS. The following analysis applies the same ballistic and ethical criteria used throughout this database for direct comparison.
12 ga 2¾” – 1¼ oz @ 1350 fps
Full pellet-by-pellet ballistic tables are available to Premium members
Conclusion – HEVI-Shot 12 ga 2¾” (1¼ oz @ 1350 fps)
HEVI-Shot delivers a decisive penetration advantage, allowing medium pellet sizes to remain fully effective at distances well beyond the practical limits of both steel and bismuth. In a standard 2¾” shell, #2 to #3 emerge as the optimal pellet sizes, maintaining adequate penetration and hit probability out to approximately 57–63 yards.
Larger pellets (BB, B, #1) become pattern-density limited earlier, while smaller pellets (#4 and below) transition to penetration limitation despite excellent hit counts. Overall, HEVI-Shot in a standard-length shell clearly extends the ethical envelope for Canada geese, achieving distances previously attainable only with extreme steel or heavy bismuth loads — and doing so with greater consistency and margin.
12 ga 3″ – 1⅜ oz @ 1350 fps
Full pellet-by-pellet ballistic tables are available to Premium members
Conclusion — HEVI-Shot 12 ga 3″ (1⅜ oz @ 1350 fps)
Increasing payload to a 3″ HEVI-Shot load slightly improves pattern density, but does not fundamentally extend the maximum ethical range on Canada geese. Medium pellet sizes (#2 to #3) continue to provide the most reliable balance, with ethical distances stabilizing around 60–66 yards.
Larger pellets remain pattern-density limited, while smaller pellets become penetration-limited at shorter distances despite excellent hit counts. Overall, the 3″ configuration primarily increases consistency and margin, confirming that with HEVI-Shot, pellet size—not shell length—remains the dominant factor governing ethical performance.
12ga 3½” – 1½ oz @ 1350 fps
Full pellet-by-pellet ballistic tables are available to Premium members
Conclusion — HEVI-Shot 12 ga 3½” (1½ oz @ 1350 fps)
Increasing payload to a 3½” HEVI-Shot load improves pattern margin, but does not produce a proportional extension of maximum ethical range. Medium pellet sizes, particularly #3, reach the furthest consistent distances at approximately 69 yards, remaining pattern-density limited rather than penetration-limited.
Beyond this point, additional pellet count offers diminishing returns. Larger pellets lose effectiveness due to pattern constraints, while smaller pellets become penetration-limited despite very high hit counts. Overall, the data confirm that with HEVI-Shot, pellet size—not shell length—sets the ethical ceiling, and the 3½” configuration primarily enhances consistency rather than redefining range.
HEVI-Shot — Key takeaway
Ballistic modelling shows that HEVI-Shot provides a substantial and measurable increase in penetration over both steel and bismuth, allowing medium pellet sizes to remain lethal at distances previously unreachable with standard non-toxic materials. Across all 12-gauge configurations, #2 to #3 consistently emerge as the optimal pellet sizes, with ethical performance extending into the mid-to-high 60-yard range under controlled conditions.
However, the data also demonstrate that increasing shell length and payload does not proportionally extend ethical range. Once the penetration advantage of HEVI-Shot is realized, further gains are primarily in pattern consistency and margin, not distance. As with all materials, ethical limits remain governed by pellet size and hit probability, confirming that HEVI-Shot expands the envelope responsibly rather than removing ballistic constraints.
Ethical Shooting Considerations
Ethical shooting distances depend on a balance between pellet penetration, pellet density, and hit probability.
Beyond certain distances, even high-energy pellets may fail to deliver sufficient hit density for reliable lethality.
This database defines maximum ethical ranges, not maximum possible ranges, and should be read accordingly — especially when evaluating high-density materials.
TSS (18 density)
Tungsten Super Shot (TSS – 18 g/cm³) Overview
Tungsten Super Shot (TSS) with a density of approximately 18 g/cm³ represents the highest-density shot material commonly used for waterfowl hunting in the United States. This extreme density delivers unmatched penetration, allowing the use of very small pellet sizes while maintaining lethal performance at distances unreachable by steel, bismuth, or HEVI-Shot.
The following analysis applies the same ballistic and ethical criteria used throughout this database, in order to determine whether increased penetration translates into a meaningful extension of ethical shooting distance, or simply provides greater margin within existing limits.
12ga 3″ – 1½ oz @ 1300 fps
Full pellet-by-pellet ballistic tables are available to Premium members
Conclusion 12ga 3″ – 1½ oz @ 1300 fps
Ballistic modelling shows that TSS dramatically increases penetration, allowing small pellet sizes to remain lethal at distances far beyond the practical limits of steel, bismuth, or HEVI-Shot. In this configuration, #4 to #6 TSS provide the most effective balance, maintaining adequate penetration and hit probability out to approximately 78–94 yards, depending on pellet size.
However, even at extreme density, ethical range is not unlimited. Larger pellets (#1–#3) become pattern-density limited, while very small pellets (#7 and below) become penetration-limited despite extremely high hit counts. The data clearly demonstrate that with TSS, pattern density replaces penetration as the dominant limiting factor, reinforcing that ethical performance remains governed by probability and shot discipline rather than pellet energy alone.
12 ga 3½” — 1⅝ oz @ 1250 fps
Full pellet-by-pellet ballistic tables are available to Premium members
Conclusion – 12 ga 3½” — 1⅝ oz @ 1250 fps
With the corrected data, the 3½” TSS configuration provides a modest but measurable extension of ethical performance compared to the 3″ load, primarily through increased pattern margin. Medium pellet sizes #4 to #5 offer the most consistent balance, reaching approximately 82–94 yards while remaining pattern-density limited rather than penetration-limited.
At the smaller end, #6 operates close to the penetration threshold and becomes penetration-limited before it can fully exploit its pellet count, while #7 and smaller remain clearly penetration-limited despite very high hit densities. Larger pellets (#1–#3) maintain excellent penetration but are still constrained by pattern density at distance. Overall, the data confirm that TSS meaningfully expands the ethical envelope on Canada geese, yet its upper limits remain governed by hit probability and shot discipline, not pellet energy alone.
TSS (18 g/cm³) — Key takeaway
Tungsten Super Shot fundamentally shifts the performance envelope on Canada geese by allowing small pellet sizes to retain lethal penetration at distances unreachable with steel, bismuth, or HEVI-Shot. Pellet sizes #4 to #5 provide the most reliable balance, combining sufficient penetration with adequate pattern density to extend ethical performance into the 80–90 yard range under controlled conditions.
However, increased density does not remove ethical constraints. At extreme distances, pattern density—not pellet energy—becomes the dominant limiting factor, while very small pellets eventually fall below penetration thresholds despite high hit counts. TSS therefore delivers exceptional margin and consistency, but demands heightened shot discipline, as its advantages amplify responsibility rather than eliminating ballistic limits.
Final Conclusion — Canada Goose Ballistics Overview
Across all materials analyzed, Canada goose ballistics reveal a far more restrictive and demanding profile than medium-sized ducks. Large body mass, deeper vital organs, and greater target surface place penetration and hit probability at the center of ethical lethality. As a result, increases in velocity or payload alone offer limited benefits once material density becomes the primary constraint.
Steel shot proves fundamentally penetration-limited on Canada geese, with ethical performance stabilizing in the mid-50-yard range, even in heavy 3½” loads. Bismuth improves penetration, reduces recoil, and increases choke versatility, offering greater margin and consistency, but only a modest extension of ethical range. HEVI-Shot represents a clear step forward, allowing medium pellet sizes to remain effective into the mid-to-high 60-yard range, while still exhibiting diminishing returns as shell length increases.
Tungsten Super Shot (TSS 18) meaningfully shifts the ethical envelope, enabling smaller pellets to combine sufficient penetration and pattern density at distances approaching 80–90 yards. Yet even at extreme density, ethical limits remain governed by pattern density and hit probability, not pellet energy alone. Ultimately, the data confirm that on Canada geese, shooter discipline, distance judgment, and load selection matter more than absolute ballistic capability, reinforcing that higher performance materials increase responsibility rather than permission.
For most Canada goose hunters, bismuth or HEVI-Shot represent the best all-around choice, offering meaningful gains in penetration, consistency, and shooting comfort over steel, while TSS remains a specialized option suited only to disciplined shooters operating at extended but ethical distances.
Premium access provides detailed ballistic tables for hunters who want to base their shooting decisions on measurable data rather than assumptions.